Health Sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Health Sociology - Essay Example Also included is the criticism of capitalism which forces the lower working classes to be subject to the exploitation of the upper classes. This includes not only the working standards of the employees but a variety of other factors such as the standards of health which are determined by the bourgeoisie set to attain power. Through manipulating these means, they are able to produce surplus product which leads to profits and the upper classes accumulation of wealth and power for themselves. The last pattern set by Marxism is the need for the worker to revolt. It is only by standing up to the orders set for them by the upper classes that the proletariat can escape. This requires the workers to unite through unions and political parties to stand against the control of the rich ruling classes. Thus, the Marxist policy is very consistent with the idea of exploitation done by the ruling class to maintain their power over the poorer and less powerful working classes. While most Marxist opinions are based upon the concept of economic determinism and its effect on the resulting class conflict, Marx and Engels have been unable to come with a unified and direct theory on over-all purpose of civil society itself. However this purpose of society can be understood by examining the work done by both men. This includes the criticism of the 19th century social systems, the advantages of a communist system and its superiority to the exploitation committed by the capitalist systems and the Marxist need for a justified revolution that would allow the workers to gain their due rights (Peffer 1990).Thus, Marxists aim for a health system that will not deprive the poor of their rights to a justifiable and efficient system that will provide for their basic needs and wants. Marxists view the health care system as a method for capitalist societies to search for profits while maintaining their capitalist domination and capital accumulation (Waitzkin 1983). Marx saw the problems created by the inequality amongst the classes. The conditions borne by the lower working classes were dismal. The working classes were living in an abject state of poverty and were deprived of many material goods. Not only were they paid a minimum wage which prevented them from buying anything but the basic necessities of life but they also lived together which allowed the diseases amongst them to spread at a much higher speed. This unbridled capitalist system created a breeding ground for disease amongst the proletariat (Baggott 2004). There is no doubt that the upper classes are not immune to the disease and infections spread caused by the social and economic conditions, but the number of ill-health between the rich and poor are severely disproportionate. This was coupled with the health services provided to the two different classes. Both were phenomenally different. This proved the Marxist concept that while the rich prospered; the working class lived in poo r conditions under them. The idea is that the health of managerial and professional classes tends to improve while those of the poorer

How to reduce turnover and retain qualified associates at walmart Research Paper

How to reduce turnover and retain qualified associates at walmart (specifically management, in rural stores) - Research Paper Example Contributing to Wal-Mart’s high employee turnover rate are the characteristics of the jobs they offer, such as low hourly wages, inadequate benefits, constantly changing schedules, and little possibility of advancement. (Lichtenstein and Johansson, 2011) Obviously, these characteristics will not attract the most qualified or career oriented applicants (i.e. recent college graduates). According to Danny Baisden, Co-Manager of the MacArthur, West Virginia, Wal-Mart, â€Å"we will need to replace 30% of our work force in the next year, management and hourly associates. We also have a current shortage of associates. The stores hands are tied and are not able to negotiate with current applicants on salary and benefits. This makes the stores less competitive†. (Baisden, 2010) In West Virginia, more than 25 percent of the state’s 980,000 working-age adults (25-64 years old) hold at least a two-year degree, according to 2008 Census data. This compares to a national average of around 38 percent. Attainment rates in West Virginia are increasing modestly, even though the proportion of degree-holding young adults — those 25-34 years old — mirrors that of the overall adult population. (Lumina Foundation for Education, 2010) Many recent graduates are turning down good job offers, holding out for better jobs and salaries in the belief that a college degree entitles them to more than entry level," says Ogunwole. "In today's job market, that's just not realistic." (2009 College Grads Moving Home in Large Numbers, 2009) However, an entry level position with very good probability for advancement may be much more attractive to these recent graduates and other well qualified individuals. In order for Wal-Mart to attract better qualified applicants, some policy changes must be made. For example, Wal-Mart could create a system where employee wages increase with the amount of time associates are employed with the company and with an employee’s skills and experience. (Lichtenstein and Johansson, 2011) Wal-Mart could also offer their employees better benefits, such as less expensive health insurance. Another suggestion would be to provide employees with more stable schedules so that they are not constantly ch anging. Wal-Mart could also create more hourly positions which include greater responsibilities, training and higher wages for those positions. Finally, Wal-Mart can provide their employees with better opportunities for advancement within the company. (Lichtenstein and Johansson, 2011) Methodology In order to determine whether the suggested changes will reduce employee turnover rates, perhaps they can be implemented in one store or one geographical area such as the store in MacArthur, West Virginia. Once changes are in place for some time (i.e. one year), Wal-Mart will be able to see whether or not they have an effect on employee turnover rates. Study Subjects Subjects for the study may include associates currently employed at the store. College students in the area may also be subjects for the study. Data Collection Before making changes, current Wal-Mart associates could complete questionnaires regarding what they believe is important, would be most beneficial to them, and increas e the likelihood of them remaining with the company. Wal-Mart may also want to survey college students in the area in order to determine what would make employment at Wal-Mart more attractive to them. Once this data is collected and analyzed, these questionnaires can provide the company with a better of understanding of their current employees’

Pestle Analysis Of The Car Industry

Pestle Analysis Of The Car Industry This report is a PESTLE analysis of the Car Industry. We have looked at Political, Environmental, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental issues that affect the car industry based on innovations that have and are taking place. It is political factors which are creating market pulls on innovation in the automobile industry and having the greatest affect on the innovations which are produced. This is because the governments of many countries are concerned about global warming and lowering their emissions. And one way to lower its affects is for the automobile industry to create innovations which have less of an impact on the environment. The main ways through which governments are intervening are, Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles, FreedomCAR, emission standards and the Kyoto Protocol. Â  The number of accidents and alcohol related accidents, which are social factors, are starting to increase. This has caused the automotive to innovate to help reverse this increase and lower the number of accidents on the road. 2. INTRODUCTION The aim of this report is to have an insight of the automobile industry, how it has been affected by innovation and what actions the car companies have taken in terms of innovation. We will analyse the external factors of the industry through a PESTLE analysis. The word PESTLE is an abbreviation of Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental. A PESTLE analysis is an audit of an organisations environmental influences (CIPD, 2009) that are having an effect on the organisation/industry. The analysis can lead to seeing possible opportunities that lie within the industry and where the major influences on the industry come from. An innovation is the generation of a new idea and its implementation into a product, process or service (Urabe et al, 1986, p.3). An innovation can fall under one of the following categories: Product Changes in the things (products/services) which an organisation offers. Process Changes in the ways they are created and delivered. Position Changes in the context the product/services are introduced Paradigm Changes in the underlying mental models which frame what the organisation does. (Tidd, Bessant and Pavitt, 2005, p.10) We will refer to this classification of different types of innovations throughout this report. The Henderson and Clark model of innovation will also be used, and according to it there are 4 types of innovation: Incremental innovation is the enhancement of existing products or services. (Gaynor, 2002, p. 25) Modular innovation is when new knowledge is required on a product as one part of a product is significantly improved but the overall the architecture of the product remains the same. (Innovation Zen, 2006) Architectural innovation reconfigures a system of components that constitute a product, process or service (Gaynor, 2002, p.26). Radical innovation is the introduction of new products or services that develop into major new businesses or spawn new industries, or that cause significant change in a whole industry (Gaynor, 2002, p.27). 3. THE PARTNERSHIP FOR A NEW GENERATION OF VEHICLES The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) was a program that started in 1993 by U.S president Bill Clinton and vice president Al Gore (PNGV, 2009). The partnership was between many government agencies including the United States Council for Automotive Research. (USCAR) This consisted of the big three American automotive manufacturers (Ford, General Motors and Chrysler), over 300 suppliers of automotive parts, small businesses, Universities and federal Labs (see appendix 1) (Turner et al, 2000). In this partnership the U.S government would match the amount of capital the big 3 manufacturers invested into the research of technologies that would help achieve the partnerships objectives and the big 3 manufacturers, small businesses, universities and laboratories would carry out the research (Jewett, 1997). When this program first started, it had 3 objectives: To increase the competitiveness of the U.S automotive industry. Create a mid -sized vehicle that has the fuel efficiency of 80 miles to the gallon whilst keeping the performance and cost similar to those of vehicles that were available in 1993. This vehicle would need to apply to the emissions standards of 2004. Employ the innovations that were created in the program to conventional vehicles once the innovations became commercially viable. (Fosgard, 1995) The government created this partnership for two main reasons: The first is that they wanted to lower Americas need on foreign oil (an economic factor) through the fact that more efficient vehicles would use less oil and this would increase Americas national security (a social factor) (PNGV, 2009) because the country would be less reliant on other nations for fuel. Secondly, the U.S government wanted to lower the amount of harmful greenhouse emissions that the United States emitted as a whole and lowering the level of emissions that the cars in the U.S was one way to fulfil this reason (PNGV, 2009). This was an environmental factor causing the creation of PNGV. There was a requirement of the vehicles that were to be created in 2004, which was that they should be able to travel a certain distance on a full tank of fuel. Also there were short deadlines within the program an example was that by 1997 production prototypes of the vehicles that were most likely to meet the objectives were to be created. These two factors meant that architectural innovations over the regular internal combustion engine like a fuel cell or pure electric vehicle couldnt be pursued because they could not meet the range requirement and required much longer to research than the deadline allowed (Sperling, 1996). These are architectural innovations as they reconfigure the power source of the vehicle and no longer use an internal combustion engine. Such innovations would have been better at meeting objectives as they required little or no oil and emitted far less greenhouse gases. The only option available to the automobile manufacturers was a hybrid electric vehicle. A product and modular innovation over internal combustion engines as they use a regular internal combustion engine in partnership with one or more electric motors (Toyota, 2009). The hybrid electric vehicle was originally created in 1899 by Dr. Ferdinand Porsche (Truett, 2006), which makes the hybrid the big three manufacturers created was an incremental innovation on Porsches hybrid vehicle as their version was an enhancement of an existing technology. In the end no vehicles were produced which could meet all the requirements (Washington Times, 2009) so it could be seen as a failure. However many incremental innovations were created because of this partnership. Examples are, all of todays hybrid vehicles use some battery technology that was created in PNGV (Business Week, 2006), and DaimlerChrysler made large strides in technology which makes vehicles lighter, up to 46% lighter than conventional vehicles which they use in their latest models (Vasilash, 2000). Overall PNGV was a political factor affecting innovation because it was initiated by the government. This caused market pull on innovation in the automotive sector as the innovation was being carried out to meet a specific need. A marketing pull is when a stimulus of innovation comes from the needs of the society or from a particular sector of the market (Open University, ND).This political factor was caused by environmental, social and economical elements. Even though the government wanted to free themselves from the need on foreign oil the conflicting objectives of the partnership did not allow pursuit of architectural innovations which would have allowed this but many useful incremental innovations did come out of the partnership. 4. FREEDOM CAR PROGRAM Due to the failure of PNGV the U.S government created the FreedomCAR program (FreedomCAR, 2002). This program is a partnership between the U.S government, USCAR and five major energy companies (Green Car Congress, 2008). The program is based on the following principles: Freedom from dependence on imported oil. Freedom from pollutant emissions Freedom for Americans to choose the kind of vehicle they want to drive, to drive where they want and when they want. Freedom to obtain fuel affordably and conveniently. (U.S Department of Energy, 2009) The program is based on similar economic, social and environmental issues as PNGV however the latter 2 principles are further social factors that caused the creation of FreedomCAR. The long term focus of the program is to see whether hydrogen fuel cell vehicles can become the norm in the U.S by 2015 (Green Car Congress, 2005), this is because as previously explained the vehicles are an architectural innovation that do not require oil and produces no harmful emissions. The short term focus is to make internal combustion vehicles and electric hybrid vehicles as efficient and environmentally friendly as possible (Green Car Congress, 2005). In terms of innovation in the automotive industry, the partnership is exploring research in a wide range of areas from creating lithium ion batteries for use in vehicles to making carbon fibre much cheaper to produce (Business Week, 2006). These are incremental innovations as they are improvement on existing technology and so it may seem that they are not pursuing the long term focus of the partnership but these incremental innovations are required to make the architectural innovation possible (Business week, 2006). Just like PNGV, FreedomCAR is a political element that is having an effect on innovation in the automotive industry as it was created by the government because of several economic, social and environmental issues. The difference between the two programs is that FreedomCAR lacks restrictive deadlines and its main focus is architectural innovation which will hopefully meet the principles set. 5. CAR EMMISSIONS Car emissions have become an increasingly important issue for car owners and reducing individuals carbon footprints. Buying smaller cars have been encouraged to car owners by the media and many politicians. (Quirk, 2008) The European Union is trying to reduce the CO2 emissions from cars and also improve their fuel efficiency which led to the creation of the ACEA agreement. The agreement is between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA), the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA), and the Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association (KAMA). The table below shows how these targets can change into fuel efficiency standards for petrol and diesel cars according to the ACEA agreement. Relationships between CO2 targets and fuel consumption Year Target Petrol (Litres of fuel consumed per 100 km) Diesel (Litres of fuel consumed per 100 km) 2012 120 gCO2/km 5.1 4.6 2008 140 gCO2/km 5.9 5.4 A failure for the car industry to meet the 2008/9 targets could lead to mandatory regulation in the future (Rajagopalan Saini 2007). For example BMW has built the Mini Cooper Diesel which meets the targets set above as they are below the criteria, making it an efficient car of its time. 64mpg is the cars combined fuel consumption and 104g/km of carbon dioxide is emitted. The 5-series saloon is also achieving these quality emissions where the 2.0 litre diesel version emits just 136g/km about the same as a hatchback. (Quirk, 2008) The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Trades chief executive said that average emissions have fallen every year during the last decade. Through technological innovation and consumer education, manufacturers have made genuine progress towards meeting tough environmental targets, (Young, 2009) Several manufacturers including Saab think the solution to reducing vehicle emissions is through the use of Flex-fuel cars or bio powered cars. These types of vehicles can run on emissions free E85 ethanol or petrol or a combination of the two (Quirk, 2008) Flexible fuel vehicles have been in production since the 1980s and have been made available to many customers who might not even know they have this type of engine in their car. (U.S Department of Energy, 2009). Flexible fuel vehicles do not experience any loss of performance when using E85 ethanol. However, since a gallon of ethanol contains less energy than a gallon of gasoline, flexible fuel vehicles typically get about 20-30% fewer miles per gallon when fuelled with E85. U.S Department of Energy (2009). Flexible fuel vehicles are an incremental innovation on regular internal combustion engine vehicles as most of the technology is the same. The only difference is that they can run on a different type of fuel. Flexible fuel vehicles produce no harmful emissions so they will help meet emissions targets but first consumers need to switch to using e85 ethanol and this will only happen if the price of e85 is not high as it has lower fuel efficiency than petrol. E85 ethanol is still some way off from being readily made available to the public because there is a lack in the number of refineries to create the fuel and pumping stations to provide it. (Quirk, 2008). Flexible fuel cars are in the fluid phase of the Abernathy and Utterback model (see Appendix 3 for full definition) as a core component (the e85 ethanol fuel) is not widely available. This lack of availability of the fuel is also slowing the innovation of flexible fuel vehicles as the fuel is not there to run flexible fuel vehicles so the vehicle manufacturers are not going to put their full effort into improving the technology. 6. CONVENIENCE AND SAFETY CAR INNOVATIONS There have been many road accidents and the main contributors to these are alcohol and careless driving. To discourage drink-driving there have been many campaigns to reduce the number of casualties from road accidents. (National Statistics, 2009). In recent years there has been an increase in accidents involving alcohol compared to a sharp fall in the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. In 1986, 560 people were killed compared to 1000 people in 2000. (See Appendix 2 for full statistics) (National Statistics, 2009). Also according to Volvo, driver sleepiness is responsible for more road deaths than alcohol. In Germany, it is thought to account for a quarter of all fatal accidents and in the US about 1,500 deaths a year. (Automotive Engineer, 2006).This has therefore meant that car manufacturers have created innovations to help prevent these from happening again such as: Volvo has created the collision warning system to help prevent accidents from occurring. This system uses a wide angle sensor to scan around the car for any objects that may be near much like radar technology. A signal alerts the driver to react, if for example the car is approaching a pedestrian which will give the driver enough time to divert the vehicle away from the pedestrian (Quirk, 2008). To help lower alcohol related accidents Saab has created the Alco-Key. Saab has begun fitting this device as standard in their cars; it is a fully integrated system that requests the driver to blow into a wireless hand-held unit before driving the car. Their breath is then analysed and if the blood-alcohol limit is exceeded, a red LED will appear and the engine will not start (Quirk, 2008). Volvo has introduced the Sleep Detection system which includes Lane Departure Warning (LDW) and Driver Alert Control (DAC). LDW uses cameras located between the windscreen and the rear view mirror and monitors the cars position between the road markings. Only after a certain speed is reached does the system become active, if the car then wanders across any lane markings without using an indicator, the driver is audibly alerted (Quirk, 2008). These creations are product innovations as they are new innovations that car manufacturers have created and offer with their vehicles. The fact they have been produced as a response to help prevent alcohol related accidents, which is a social factor, makes them a response to a market pull. The fact that the Alco-key is the first system that prevents drinking driving could lead to Saab gaining the first mover advantage, if such technology was to become mandatory. This advantage would be kept through the fact Saab has a patent on the technology (Free Patents Online, 2009) and a patent prevents other companies from using the technology without Saabs permission. 7. THE KYOTO PROTOCOL The Kyoto Protocol was an international agreement originally created in 1997 but in 2005 it was made legally binding, and is linked to the United Nations Framework of Climate Control. The agreement set targets for industrialised countries to cut their emission of harmful greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, plus several others) which are partially the cause of the increase of global warming. The countries that signed the Kyoto Protocol agreed to set their own targets e.g. Japan agreed to meet a 5% cut in emissions by 2008-2012 and most EU countries agreed to an 8% cut (BBC, 2005). Carbon dioxide is created by internal combustion engine vehicles and given off from their exhaust; therefore its a cause of global warming. To meet the targets agreed, governments and automobile manufacturers need to work together. In 2007, the Japanese government agreed to spend 200 billion yen on the improvement of hybrid vehicles to lower their emissions (Reuters, 2007) as HEVs emit less harmful gases than a petrol engine (What Green Car, 2009). Also in Japan, Toyota has achieved its target of reducing carbon dioxide emissions, from 2.12 million to 1.78 million tons. It did this through decreasing their energy usage by 40% and replacing multiple production lines with single lines capable of producing different vehicles (I. Rowley, 2005). The change in their use of production lines which increased efficiency is a process innovation as it is a change in the way the vehicles were created. Both of the above examples are market pulls on innovation for the fact the change is a response to a market/government requirement. The Kyoto Protocol is a political factor based on an environmental factor (global warming), having an effect on innovation as the governments in many countries are trying to adhere to it and to adhere to it requires the government to intervene change the vehicles that the automobile industry produces and the way they are produced. 8. CONCLUSION It is clear that out of the PESTLE factors, the main one which is having the greatest effect on innovation in the automobile industry is political. Many governments are concerned about global warming and it is the automotive industry which is adding to worsening of the effects of global warming through the emissions of their vehicles and their manufacturing plants. This has led to governments to intervene in the automotive industry to make vehicle manufacturers improve their own vehicles and facilities, through innovations which have mostly been incremental. However FreedomCAR looks promising for the environment as it is hoping to create an architectural innovation, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that have little impact on the environment, and help meet the governments reason for creating these market pulls on innovation. It also lacks the restrictive deadlines and conflicting objectives that PNGV had which will help increase the programs chance of success. So it may be political fa ctors that are having a direct affect on innovation but these political influences are mainly based environmental factors. Social aspects are also having an affect on innovation through the improvement of safety of the vehicles that are produced. The increase in the number of accidents and alcohol related accidents has led to a market pull on innovation for vehicle manufacturers, as they have created these improvements in safety due to this increase. As it is the political factors that are directly influencing the innovations that manufacturers create, means they are not doing it in response to the environmental factors themselves. This means the automotive industry are not wanting to help lower their affect on the environment even though it is them adding to global warming. 9. RECOMMENDATIONS This report shows that the vehicle manufacturers have only begun being environmentally concerned because of political factors their having on the industry. We would recommend that the manufacturers start thinking in a more environmentally friendly manner e.g. by investing in new machinery and production facilities similar to those of Toyota which emit lower carbon emissions. Another recommendation is the manufacturers start to create more flexible fuel vehicles and promote their availability which will increase the likeliness that consumers will switch to them. But also for consumers to switch will require that more refineries which can produce the e85 ethanol needed for the vehicles to be created. Also the price of the fuel will need to regulate as to prevent it from being too high as consumers may decide not to use e85 for the fact it has a lower fuel efficiency than petrol. 10. APPENDIX Appendix 1 Diagram showing the structure of PNGV. APPENDIX 2 Casualties from road accidents involving illegal alcohol levels, 1986-2000 United Kingdom Thousands Source: Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions; Royal Ulster Constabulary Casualties from road accidents involving illegal alcohol levels, 1986-2000 ThousandsSeriousSlightAllFatalinjuriesinjuriescasualties 1986United Kingdom 1.03 6.57 19.60 27.20 1987 0.93 6.01 17.99 24.93 1988 0.81 5.18 17.25 23.24 1989 0.84 4.92 17.05 22.81 1990 0.80 4.23 16.01 21.04 1991 0.69 3.72 14.00 18.41 1992 0.69 3.40 13.28 17.37 1993 0.57 2.82 12.25 15.63 1994 0.54 2.95 12.26 15.75 1995 0.56 3.10 12.89 16.56 1996 0.60 3.13 13.93 17.67 1997 0.57 3.07 13.90 17.55 1998 0.49 2.68 13.25 16.42 1999 0.48 2.60 14.64 17.72 2000 0.56 2.71 15.75 19.02 Source: Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions; Royal Ulster Constabulary National Statistics (2009) Appendix 3 The Abernathy and Utterback model says that technology can be in 3 different phases, fluid, transitional or specific. Fluid Many uncertainties with the technology and in the market prevail. Large amounts of experimentation going on with the technology and core components are not fully available/developed. Very few competitors. Transitional Firms are learning more about the technology and a dominant design has been accepted by many of the competing firms. Specific Companies are creating incremental innovation on the dominant design and are targeting specific market segments (Innovation Zen, 2006)

Kurt Vonnegut Essay -- Essays Papers

Kurt Vonnegut Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. is a contemporary American author whose works have been described by Richard Giannone as "comic masks covering the tragic farce that is our contemporary life" (Draper, 3784). Vonnegut's life has had a number of significant influences on his works. Influences from his personal philosophy, his life and experiences, and his family are evident elements in his works. Among his "comic masks" are three novels: Cat's Cradle, The Sirens of Titan, and God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. Throughout these novels, elements such as attitude, detail, narrative technique, setting, and theme can be viewed with more understanding when related to certain aspects of his life. These correlations are best examined in terms of each influence. One of the most significant influences from Vonnegut's life on his personal philosophy has been his participation in World War II. During the war, Vonnegut served in the American army in Europe and was captured by German soldiers. As a prisoner of war, he witnessed the Allied bombing of the city of Dresden, in which more than 135,000 people died due to the resulting fires (Draper, 3785). This experience had a profound impact on Vonnegut. From it, he developed his existential personal philosophy and his ideas about the evils of technology. He states, "I am the enemy of all technological progress that threatens mankind" (Nuwer, 39). The influence of Dresden shows up in each of the novels. In Cat's Cradle, one element of his experience at Dresden that Vonnegut portrays is his fear of technology. Initially, the intention of the story is for the narrator to write about what the scientists who invented the atomic bomb were doing the day it was dropped on Hiroshima. To this effect, one of the scientists in the story said, "Science has now known sin," to which another replied, "What is sin?" (Vonnegut, Cradle, 21). The focus on technology quickly changes to a material called ice-nine, which has the ability to freeze water at room temperature. This technological breakthrough, by a scientist who worked on developing the atomic bomb, has the ability to destroy the world by freezing all its water. Even though the people with ice-nine are very careful all through the plot, they lose control of it in the end and the world becomes frozen. With ice-nine, Vonnegut thematically demonstrates how relatively simple technolog... ...84). Bibliography: Draper, James P., editor. "Kurt Vonnegut, Jr." World Literature Criticism: 1500 to the Present. 1992 ed. "Existentialism." Microsoft Bookshelf '94. (CDROM) N.p.: Microsoft Corporation, 1994. "Kurt Vonnegut, Jr." Concise Dictionary of American Literary Biography: Broadening Views, 1968-1988. 1989 ed. Mantell, Harold, producer. Kurt Vonnegut: A Self Portrait. Films for the Humanities, Inc. 1975. Nuwer, Hank. "Kurt Vonnegut Close Up." The Saturday Evening Post. May/June 1986. pp. 3839. Reed, Peter J. Writers for the 70's: Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. U.S.A. Warner Books, Inc. 1972. Streitfeld, David. "Vonnegut, Existentially Speaking." Washington Post (DC) 29 August 1991. Newsbank, People, 1991, fiche 36, grid C13. Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr. Cat's Cradle. New York. Dell Publishing Co., Inc. 1963. "Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr." Discovering Authors. (CDROM) N.p.: Gale Research, Inc., 1993. Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr. God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater. New York. Dell Publishing Co., Inc. 1965. Vonnegut, Kurt, Jr. The Sirens of Titan. New York. Dell Publishing Co., Inc. 1959. Wakeman, John, editor. "Vonnegut, Kurt (Jr.)." World Authors 1950-1970. 1975 ed.

Grapes of Wrath Theme Essay

The main theme of The Grapes of Wrath is the idea that all men are part of the family of man. This is closely related to the philosophical movement of transcendentalism, what the author Ralph Waldo Emerson followed. There are four main points of the story that express this in the story; the ex-preacher’s search for purpose, Ma Joad’s understanding of working together, Pa turning from making money for himself to providing for the group and finally Tom’s decision to leave the family. First the preacher, Casy, displays the point that transcendentalists think we all need to find out our purpose in life. When he is first introduced, he can be recognized as the old preacher, but we soon find out that he abandoned that career. He states that the Oakies â€Å"need help no preachin’ can give ‘em.† It can be inferred that he no longer sees his purpose in life as a preacher and is in search for something new to do. Next, is Ma Joad’s understanding that the family must work together and stay together in order to get through the tough times. This connects the theme to transcendentalism because transcendentalists believe in setting your principals and following them at any cost. When the children crowd around for food, instead of giving the family the rest of the food, she shares it with them because she knows it’s the right thing to do. When Pa Joad is first seen, he is talking about becoming a picker, getting wealthy and having tons of grapes to gorge on, all to himself. Once the family gets on the road though, he realizes that there is a much greater need to provide for the family and get to where there are jobs. Transcendentalists would agree that we all play a role in life, and we are all should work together, because we all are in the family of men. Pa Joad’s actions follow that principle. Lastly, Tom decides that it is best if he leaves the family. Ma expresses her concern that she won’t know if he is doing well or not. His reply tells us that he believes in the oversoul, because she will see him in everything, because they all are part of one greater existence, such as an oversoul. He also sees this action as something he must do, and doing what you believe in is very important to the oversoul idea. Ralph Emerson clearly displayed his ideas and beliefs in his writing in hopes to create a positive movement. With the use of the preacher, Ma, Pa and Tom, he clearly expressed his opinions. This is why it is easy for one to infer that the theme of the book, and the oversoul described in this work are closely related.

Conflicts of Globalization and Restructuring of Education Essay

The September 11 terrorist attacks have generated a wealth of theoretical reflection as well as regressive political responses by the Bush administration and other governments (Kellner, 2003b). The 9/11 attacks and subsequent Bush administration military response have dramatized once again the centrality of globalization in contemporary experience and the need for adequate conceptualizations and responses to it for critical theory and pedagogy to maintain their relevance in the present age. In this article, I want to argue that critical educators need to comprehend the conflicts of globalization, terrorism, and the prospects and obstacles to democratization in order to develop pedagogies adequate to the challenges of the present age. Accordingly, I begin with some comments on how the September 11 terror attacks call attention to key aspects of globalization, and then provide a critical theory of globalization, after which I suggest some pedagogical initiatives to aid in the democratic reconstruction of education after 9/11.1 September 11 and Globalization The terrorist acts on the United States on September 11 and the subsequent Terror War throughout the world dramatically disclose the downside of globalization, and the ways that global flows of technology, goods, information, ideologies, and people can have destructive as well as productive effects.2 The disclosure of powerful anti-Western terrorist networks shows that globalization divides the world just as it unifies, that it produces enemies as it incorporates participants. The events reveal explosive contradictions and conflicts at the heart of globalization and that the technologies of information, communication, and transportation that facilitate globaliz ation can also be used to undermine and attack it, and generate instruments of destruction as well as production. The experience of September 11 points to the objective ambiguity of globalization, that positive and negative sides are interconnected, that the institutions of the open society unlock the possibilities of destruction and violence, as well as democracy, free trade, and cultural and social exchange. Once again, the interconnection and interdependency of the networked world was dramatically demonstrated as terrorists from the Middle East brought local grievances from their region to attack key symbols of US military power and the very infrastructure of Wall Street. Some see terrorism as an expression of â€Å"the dark side of globalization,† while I would conceive it as part of the objective ambiguity of globalization that simultaneously creates friends and enemies, wealth and poverty, and growing divisions between the â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have nots.† Yet, the downturn in the global economy, intensification of local and global political conflicts, repression of human rights and civil liberties, and general increase in fear and anxiety have certainly undermined the naà ¯ve optimism of globophiles who perceived globalization as a purely positive instrument of progress and well-being. The use of powerful technologies as weapons of destruction also discloses current asymmetries of power and emergent forms of terrorism and war, as the new millennium exploded into dangerous conflicts and military interventions. As technologies of mass destruction become more available and dispersed, perilous instabilities have emerged that have elicited policing measures to stem the flow of movements of people and goods across borders and internally. In particular, the U.S. â€Å"Patriot Act† has led to repressive measures that are replacing the spaces of the open and free information society with new forms of surveillance, policing, and restrictions of civil liberties, thus significantly undermining U.S. democracy (see Kellner, 2003b). Ultimately, however, the abhorrent terror acts by the bin Laden network and the violent military response by the Bush administration may be an anomalous paroxysm whereby a highly regressive premodern Islamic fundamentalism has clashed with an old-fashioned patriarchal and unilateralist Wild West militarism. It could be that such forms of terrorism, militarism, and state repression will be superseded by more rational forms of politics that globalize and criminalize terrorism, and that do not sacrifice the benefits of the open society and economy in the name of security. Yet the events of September 11 may open a new era of Terror War that will lead to the kind of apocalyptic futurist world depicted by cyberpunk fiction (see Kellner 2003b). In any case, the events of September 11 have promoted a fury of reflection, theoretical debates, and political conflicts and upheaval that put the complex dynamics of globalization at the center of contemporary theory and politics. To those skeptical of the centrality of globalization to contemporary experience, it is now clear that we are living in a global world that is highly interconnected and vulnerable to passions and crises that can cross borders and can affect anyone or any region at any time. The events of September 11 and their aftermath also provide a test case to evaluate various theories of globalization in the contemporary era. In addition, they highlight some of the contradictions of globalization and the need to develop a highly complex and dialectical model to capture its conflicts, ambiguities, and contradictory effects. Consequently, I argue that in order to properly theorize globalization one needs to conceptualize several sets of contradictions generated by globalization’s combination of technological revolution and restructuring of capital, which, in turn, generate tensions between capitalism and democracy, and â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have nots.† Within the world economy, globalization involves the proliferation of the logic of capital, but also the spread of democracy in information, finance, investing, and the diffusion of technology (see Friedman, 1999 and Hardt and Negri, 2000). Globalization is thus a contradictory amalgam of capital ism and democracy, in which the logic of capital and the market system enter ever more arenas of global life, even as democracy spreads and more political regions and spaces of everyday life are being contested by democratic demands and forces. But the overall process is contradictory. Sometimes globalizing forces promote democracy and sometimes inhibit it, thus either equating capitalism and democracy, or simply opposing them, are problematical. The processes of globalization are highly turbulent and have generated intense conflicts throughout the world. Benjamin Barber (1996) describes the strife between McWorld and Jihad, contrasting the homogenizing, commercialized, Americanized tendencies of the global economy and culture with anti-modernizing Jihadist movements that affirm traditional cultures and are resistant to aspects of neoliberal globalization. Thomas Friedman (1999) makes a more benign distinction between what he calls the â€Å"Lexus† and the â€Å"Olive Tree.† The former is a symbol of modernization, of affluence and luxury, and of Westernized consumption, contrasted with the Olive Tree that is a symbol of roots, tradition, place, and stable community. Barber (1996), however, is too negative toward McWorld and Jihad, failing to adequately describe the democratic and progressive forces within both. Although Barber recognizes a dialectic of McWorld and Jihad, he opposes both to democracy, failing to perceive how they generate their own democratic forces and tendencies, as well as opposing and undermining democratization. Within Western democracies, for instance, there is not just top-down homogenization and corporate domination, but also globalization-from-below and oppositional social movements that desire alternatives to capitalist globalization. Thus, it is not only traditionalist, non-Western forces of Jihad that oppose McWorld. Likewise, Jihad has its democratizing forces as well as the reactionary Islamic fundamentalists who are now the most demonized elements of the contemporary era, as I discuss below. Jihad, like McWorld, has its contradictions and its potential for democratization, as well as elements of domination and destruction.3 Friedman, by contrast, is too uncritical of globalization, caught up in his own Lexus highconsumption life-style, failing to perceive the depth of the oppressive features of globalization and breadth and extent of resistance and opposition to it. In particular, he fails to articulate the contradictions between capitalism and democracy, and the ways that globalization and its economic logic undermine democracy as well as encouraging it. Likewise, he does not grasp the virulence of the premodern and Jihadist tendencies that he blithely identifies with the Olive tree, and the reasons why globalization and the West are so strongly resisted in many parts of the world. Hence, it is important to present globalization as a strange amalgam of both homogenizing forces of sameness and uniformity, and heterogeneity, difference, and hybridity, as well as a contradictory mixture of democratizing and anti-democratizing tendencies. On one hand, globalization unfolds a process of standardization in which a globalized mass culture circulates the globe creating sameness and homogeneity everywhere. But globalized culture makes possible unique appropriations and developments all over the world, thus proliferating hybrids, difference, and heterogeneity.4 Every local context involves its own appropriation and reworking of global products and signifiers, thus proliferating difference, otherness, diversity, and variety (Luke and Luke, 2000 ). Grasping that globalization embodies these contradictory tendencies at once, that it can be both a force of homogenization and heterogeneity, is crucial to articulating the contradictions of globalization and avoiding one-sided and reductive conceptions. My intention is to present globalization as conflictual, contradictory and open to resistance and democratic intervention and transformation and not just as a monolithic juggernaut of progress or domination as in many other discourses. This goal is advanced by distinguishing between â€Å"globalization from below† and â€Å"globalization from above† of corporate capitalism and the capitalist state, a distinction that should help us to get a better sense of how globalization does or does not promote democratization. â€Å"Globalization from below† refers to the ways in which marginalized individuals and social movements and critical pedagogues resist globalization and/or use its institutions and instruments to further democratization and social justice. Yet, one needs to avoid binary normative articulations, since globalization from below can have highly conservative and destructive effects, as well as positive ones, while globalization from above can help produce global solutions to problems like terrorism or the environment. Moreover, on one hand, as Michael Peters argues (forthcoming), globalization itself is a kind of war and much militarism has been expansive and globalizing in many historical situations. On the other hand, antiwar and peace movements are also increasingly global, hence globalization itself is marked by tensions and contradictions. Thus, while on one level, globalization significantly increases the supremacy of big corporations and big government, it can also give power to groups and individuals that were previously left out of the democratic dialogue and terrain of political struggle. Such potentially positive effects of globalization include increased access to education for individuals excluded from sharing culture and knowledge and the possibility of oppositional individuals and groups to participate in global culture and politics through gaining access to global communication and media networks and to circulate local struggles and oppositional ideas through these media. The role of information technologies in social movements, political struggle, and everyday life forces social movements and critical theorists to reconsider their political strategies and goals and democratic theory to appraise how new technologies do and do not promote democratization (Kellner, 1995b, 1997 and 1999b; Best and Kellner 2001; Kahn and Kellner 2003). In their book Empire, Hardt and Negri (2000) present contradictions within globalization in terms of an imperializing logic of â€Å"Empire† and an assortment of struggles by the multitude, creating a contradictory and tension-full situation. As in my conception, Hardt and Negri present globalization as a complex process that involves a multidimensional mixture of expansions of the global economy and capitalist market system, information technologies and media, expanded judicial and legal modes of governance, and emergent modes of power, sovereignty, and resistance.5 Combining poststructuralism with â€Å"autonomous Marxism,† Hardt and Negri stress political openings and possibilities of struggle within Empire in an optimistic and buoyant text that envisages progressive democratization and self-valorization in the turbulent process of the restructuring of capital. Many theorists, by contrast, have argued that one of the trends of globalization is depoliticization of publics, the decline of the nation-state, and the end of traditional politics (Boggs, 2000). While I would agree that globalization is promoted by extremely powerful economic forces and that it often undermines democratic movements and decision-making, one should also note that there are openings and possibilities for a globalization from below that inflects globalization for positive and progressive ends, and that globalization can thus help promote as well as destabilize democracy.6 Globalization involves both a disorganization and reorganization of capitalism, a turbulent restructuring process, which creates openings for progressive social change and intervention as well as highly destructive transformative effects. On the positive ledger, in a more fluid and open economic and political system, oppositional forces can gain concessions, win victories, and effect progressive changes. During the 1970s, new social movements, new nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and new forms of struggle and solidarity emerged that have been expanding to the present day (Hardt and Negri, 2000; Burbach, 2001; Best and Kellner, 2001; and Foran, 2003). The anti-corporate globalization of the 1990s emerged as a form of globalization from below, but so too did Al Qaeda and various global terror networks, which intensified their attacks and helped generate an era of Terror War. This made it difficult simply to affirm globalization from below while denigrating globalization from above, as clearly terrorism was an emergent and dangerous form of globalization from below that was a threat to peace, security, and democracy. Moreover, in the face of Bush administration unilateralism and militarism, multilateral approaches to the problems of terrorism called for global responses and alliances to a wide range of global problems (see Kellner 2003b and Barber 2003), thus demanding a progressive and cosmopolitan globalization to deal with contemporary challenges. Moreover, the present conjuncture is marked by a conflict between growing centralization and organization of power and wealth in the hands of the few contrasted with opposing processes exhibiting a fragmentation of power that is more plural, multiple, and open to contestation. As the following analysis will suggest, both tendencies are observable and it is up to individuals and groups to find openings for progressive political intervention, social transformation, and the democratization of education that pursue positive values such as democracy, human rights, literacy, equality, ecological preservation and restoration, and social justice, while figh ting poverty, ignorance, terror, and injustice. Thus, rather than just denouncing globalization, or engaging in celebration and legitimation, a critical theory of globalization reproaches those aspects that are oppressive, while seizing upon opportunities to fight domination and exploitation and to promote democratization, justice, and a forward looking reconstruction of the polity, society, and culture. Against capitalist globalization from above, there has been a significant eruption of forces and subcultures of resistance that have attempted to preserve specific forms of culture and society against globalization and homogenization, and to create alternative forces of society and culture, thus exhibiting resistance and globalization from below. Most dramatically, peasant and guerrilla movements in Latin America, labor unions, students, and environmentalists throughout the world, and a variety of other groups and movements have resisted capitalist globalization and attacks on previous rights and benefits. 7 Several dozen people’s organizations from around the world have protested World Trade Organization (WTO) policies and a backlash against globalization is visible everywhere. Politicians who once championed trade agreements like GATT and NAFTA are now often quiet about these arrangements or example, at the 1996 annual Davos World Economic Forum its founder and managing director published a warning entitled: â€Å"Start Taking the Backlash Against Globalization Seriously.† Reports surfaced that major representatives of the capitalist system expressed fear that capitalism was getting too mean and predatory, that it needs a kinder and gentler state to ensure order and harmony, and that the welfare state may make a come-back (see the article in New York Times, February 7, 1996: A15).8 One should take such reports with the proverbial grain of salt, but they express fissures and openings in the system for critical discourse and intervention. Indeed, by 1999, the theme of the annual Davos conference was making globalization work for poor countries and minimizing the differences between the â€Å"haves† and â€Å"have nots.† The growing divisions between rich and poor were worrying some globalizers, as were the wave of crises in Asian, Latin American, and other â€Å"developing countries†. In James Flanigan’s report in the Los Angeles Times (Febr. 19, 1999), the â€Å"main theme† is to â€Å"spread the wealth. In a world frightened by glaring imbalances and the weakness of economies from Indonesia to Russia, the talk is no longer of a new world economy getting stronger but of ways to ‘keep the engine going.'† In particular, the globalizers were attempting to keep economies growing in the more developed countries and capital flowing to developing nations. U.S. Vice-President Al Gore called on all countries to spur economic growth, and he proposed a new U.S.-led initiative to eliminate the debt burdens of developing countries. South African President Nelson Mandela asked: â€Å"Is globalization only for the powerful? Does it offer nothing to the men, women and children who are ravaged by the violence of poverty?† As the new millennium opened, there was no clear answer to Mandela’s question. In the 2000s, there have been ritual proclamations of the need to make globalization work for the developing nations at all major meetings of global institutions like the WTO or G-8 convenings. For instance, at the September 2003 WTO meeting at Cancun, organizers claimed that its goal was to fashion a new trade agreement that would reduce poverty and boost development in poorer nations. But critics pointed out that in the past years the richer nations of the U.S., Japan, and Europe continued to enforce trade tariffs and provide subsidies for national producers of goods such as agriculture, while forcing poorer nations to open their markets to â€Å"free trade,† thus bankrupting agricultural sectors in these countries that could not compete. Significantly, the September 2003 WTO trade talks in Cancun collapsed as leaders of the developing world concurred with protestors and blocked expansion of a â€Å"free trade zone† that would mainly benefit the US and overdeveloped countries. Likewise, in Miami in November 2003 the â€Å"Free-Trade Summit† collapsed without an agreement as the police violently suppressed protestors.9 Moreover, major economists like Joseph Stiglitz (2002), as well as anti-corporate globalization protestors and critics, argued that the developing countries were not adequately benefiting under current corporate globalization policies and that divisions between the rich and poor nations were growing. Under these conditions, critics of globalization were calling for radically new policies that would help the developing countries, regulate the rich and overdeveloped countries, and provide more power to working people and local groups. The Global Movement Against Capitalist Globalization With the global economic recession and the Terror War erupting in 2001, the situation of many developing countries has worsened. As part of the backlash against globalization in recent years, a wide range of theorists have argued that the proliferation of difference and the shift to more local discourses and practices best define the contemporary scene. In this view, theory and politics should shift from the level of globalization (and its accompanying often totalizing and macro dimensions) in order to focus on the local, the specific, the particular, the heterogeneous, and the micro level of everyday experience. An array of theories associated with poststructuralism, postmodernism, feminism, and multiculturalism focus on difference, otherness, marginality, the personal, the particular, and the concrete in contrast to more general theory and politics that aim at more global or universal conditions. 10 Likewise, a broad spectrum of subcultures of resistance have focused their attention on the local level, organizing struggles around identity issues such as gender, race, sexual preference, or youth subculture (see Kahn and Kellner, 2003). It can be argued that such dichotomies as those between the global and the local express contradictions and tensions between crucial constitutive forces on the present scene. It may be a mistake to focus on one side of the global/local polarity in favor of exclusive concern with the other side (Cvetkovitch and Kellner, 1997). Hence, an important challenge for a critical theory of globalization is to think through the relationships between the global and the local by observing how global forces influence and even structure an increasing number of local situations.

Saving the Forest and Climate Changes

Saving the Forest and Climate Changes A global climatic change is commonly referred to as global warming. It involves the scope and pace at which a number of both physical and chemical changes take place in the world altering the nature from its original state to a hazardous condition.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Saving the Forest and Climate Changes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This degradation in the physical environment has been suggested by numerous scientists to be caused by different factors including carbon monoxide emissions (CO2 gases), some greenhouse gases and many other. Patricia Campbell, MacKinnon and Stevens (125) argue that the greenhouse gases are released as a result of human, industrial and land usage activities, for instance, in a process of deforestation, etc. The greenhouse gases from such emissions play a key role in the depletion of the most essential ozone layer, thereby increasing the solar heating effect on the adjacent Earth’s surface as well as the rate of suns radiation on the atmosphere, hence leading to global warming. Most of the greenhouse gases are poisonous to humans and other forms of life on the earth; these are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, aerosols, sulphur dioxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), carbon monoxide and others. In spite of being poisonous, these gases have always acted as buffers by absorbing the sun’s heat and preserving it to increase the impact of global warming on the earth’s atmosphere. The global warming effect is a catastrophe that has led to decreased levels of agricultural productivity and scorching of human skin. Global warming is on the rise nowadays due to wanton deforestation activities of humans causing widespread levels of desertification and aridity all over the globe. Regardless of the importance of forests and other vegetations in controlling the high rates of global warming and rainfall formation, it seems that humans have decided to destroy their natural ecosystems and habitats through chopping trees for timbers, charcoal and furniture. In fact, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the rate of global deforestation grew at an alarming rate between 2000 and 2005. The report added that the reasons for global deforestation activities ranged from land clearing for agricultural purposes, building of new houses, commercial logging and timber to creating space for commercial developments, plants, etc. The study also recorded that up to 53,000 square miles occupied by the tropical rain forest were shattered yearly beginning with the 1980s (Honey 14). Discussed below are some of the harmful effects of deforestation on the rate of global climatic changes.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The emission and formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in the atmosph ere has been largely linked to the wanton destruction of trees and vegetation in regard to the fact that trees and greenery are responsible for the â€Å"consumption† or intake of the excess carbon dioxide gas released from animals as metabolic wastes; hence, when the forests are cut down (due to deforestation activities), CO2 gas accumulates in the atmosphere to trap and store solar heat and radiations. Some trees, especially in tropical rain forests, assist in reducing the rates of water evaporative cooling by forming canopies that cover and protect the underlying vegetation from direct excess solar heat, hence always keeping the greenery and soils wet, thereby increasing the levels of atmospheric moisture. Forests and other vast vegetations also act as water catchments by raising a region’s humidity levels and causing rainfalls, for instance, tropical rains. Due to the interconnectivities in tropical ecosystems, the effect of deforestation always spreads and extends to very large areas from the exact point of deforestation. The destruction of trees results into devastation of natural habitats for the millions of other plants and animals, especially small insects and birds that also play major roles in soil formation and trees pollination respectively. In fact, to some greater extent, deforestation leads to outbreaks of communicable diseases, e.g. malaria, in regard that logging roads from deforestation activities always act as disease carriers. For instance, Peru experienced high cases of malaria attacks of up to 64,000 cases in 2007 due to accumulation of pools of water in the holes left by logging roads allowing the growth of increased number mosquitoes, which transmit malaria through their bites. Moreover, extreme logging leads to an increased level of contraction of the human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs) from bushmeat in tropical zones (White 21). Summary Deforestation activities make humans very vulnerable to natural calamities, such a s aridity, desertification due to the tendency of creation of bare lands from deforestation, soil erosion and mass flows in mountainous regions. These factors play key roles in the global climatic changes and patterns; for example, aridity is a disaster that leaves soils bare exposing them to the adverse effects of the solar heating and radiation. Another calamity of massive mudslides befell Philippines and Indonesia hitting their major towns and causing a lot of havoc due to deforestation (Driml Common 4).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Saving the Forest and Climate Changes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In fact, according to the United Nations Statistics, the economic benefits of the deforestation are emphasized in the following ways. It is said that the forests act as sources of food, medicine and fuel to about 1.6 billion people in the entire globe. The scientists also found that up to about 2/3 of animal sp ecies lived in the woods, hence they acted as habitats for many animals and plants. The analysis also reported that deforestation caused up to about 20 percent of the yearly greenhouse gases emissions in the 1990s. Campbell, Patricia, MacKinnon, Aran and Christy Stevens. An Introduction to Global Studies. United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print. Driml, Sally and Mick Common. Ecological Economics Criteria for Sustainable Tourism: Application to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas, Australia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 4.1(1996): 3-16. Honey, Martha. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who owns Paradise? Washington, DC: Island Press, 1998. Print. White, Lynsey. The Need for Effective Partnerships to Address the Bushmeat Trade. Washington: Integrating Conservation Development in Central Africa, n.d. library.conservation.org. Web.